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As community sport clubs begin their return to play phases, the short and long-term impacts of COVID-19 – on the field and in the office – are unmistakable. Physical distancing measures and stay-at-home protocols have illuminated how technology can keep people connected and involved in their local communities. These new ways of working provide an opportunity for community sport clubs to tap into existing and new volunteers in innovative ways. This article will discuss the concept of virtual volunteering and its benefits. Suggestions are provided below for incorporating virtual volunteering into community sport now and as an ongoing practice to increase capacity and engagement.

What is virtual volunteering?

Virtual volunteering simply refers to volunteer tasks “…done online, via computers, tablets or smartphones, usually off-site from the non-profit organization being supported” (Volunteer Canada, 2019). This form of volunteering is also known as online volunteering, digital volunteering, and e-service. Virtual volunteering is by no means a new concept, and has been around since the start of the internet itself (Cravens & Ellis, 2014). In many cases, on-site and virtual volunteers are the same people, but virtual volunteering can also be used as a strategy to engage people who would otherwise be unlikely or unable to volunteer.

The sport sector is a vibrant context for volunteering in Canada, accounting for almost one quarter of all volunteers (Volunteer Canada, 2015). While many volunteer positions within the sector are considered “on-site” roles such as coaches, officials, and event hosts, sport clubs also rely on volunteers for administration and management support behind the scenes. During the global pandemic, clubs are being required to re-imagine how sport is delivered and how to best support athletes during this time. Many clubs are struggling with new or increased demands requiring technical, administrative, communication and advocacy expertise. Given the uncertainty remaining for the various phases of return-to-sport plans in many sports, it may be helpful to consider how existing and new volunteers can contribute to addressing immediate club needs, and support long-term engagement.

The benefits of virtual volunteering

In a time when so much in our life has changed and feels uncertain, contributing to your community from your home and helping others is important for mental health and overall wellbeing (Lu et.al, 2019). Times of crises can strengthen people’s pro-social behaviours such as volunteering. Some volunteer agencies such as Volunteer British Columbia have noticed an increase in the number of people wanting to volunteer during the pandemic, which the organization attributes to an increase in people’s amount of free time (Zillich, 2020). In particular, volunteering in community sport can build a sense of community and connection between like-minded individuals (Dickson, Hallman & Phelps, 2017). Typical forms of sport volunteering can generate the perception that volunteer involvement requires face-to-face interaction and set schedules. However, virtual contributions to community sport organizations can benefit volunteers by allowing for more schedule flexibility and completion of tasks from home.

Virtual volunteering also reduces some barriers to volunteer involvement such as geographic location, physical ability constraints, or inflexible work hours (Volunteer Canada, 2019). For example, 64% of Canadians ages 75 and older expressed that physical ability impaired their ability to participate in traditional volunteering activities (Volunteer Canada, 2015). Virtual volunteering can be an inclusive way to engage busy professionals, older adults with experience in sport clubs, or others with varying physical abilities in the sport community, and foster connections to sport. In return, virtual volunteers can enhance the capacity and resources of the club through contributing their skills and time in a variety of different roles.

Pivoting to Virtual Volunteering

For sport organizations seeking ways to adapt to new circumstances, virtual volunteering could provide a means to gain much needed assistance in advancing club operations. Like other volunteer strategies, success depends on having a clear purpose and strong support for the program (Bezmalinovic Dhebar & Stokes, 2008). Sport organizations should start by conducting a needs analysis to determine where help is required and where virtual volunteer investments could best be focused. Remember that these individuals are part of your overall volunteer team and volunteer management policies and procedures should be applied consistently without distinguishing between virtual and on-site volunteers. Established practices should be applied relating to screening, interviewing, training, and orientation (see Cravens & Ellis, 2014).

Virtual volunteers can be identified through a call to current volunteers and broader membership outlining the opportunities, or by posting virtual volunteer opportunities through your local volunteer agency or on other sites like charityvillage.com and SIRC.ca. In these posts, be clear about the time commitment and any specific skills and technology required for virtual volunteers. As with all volunteers, organizational support is crucial and has benefits for both the volunteer (e.g. decreased stress, increased commitment) and the organization (e.g. reduced turnover, enhanced productivity levels) (Eisenbeger et al., 2011). In order to ensure volunteers feel supported, volunteer orientation is key. Orienting volunteers to the organization, its policies, platforms and training them on any specifics related to their position will help volunteers feel comfortable and competent from the get go. Be transparent as to whether or not it is feasible or not for your organization to provide financial compensation for software or subscriptions to secure virtual platforms that they need to complete certain project or tasks prior to the volunteer agreeing to take on the role. In addition, it may be helpful to decide on and communicate a record system to ensure organization has a consolidated place to store related documents to help virtual volunteers and your organization stay organized.

Ways to Engage Virtual Volunteers

Volunteers can contribute virtually in a variety of roles while social distancing measures are still in place and may continue within these roles as restrictions ease. Such roles could include social media specialist, digital marketing coordinator, administrative assistant, scheduler,  video analyst, web designer, community outreach coordinator, online mentor, inclusion education. Volunteer roles assigned in the short-term may help to minimize organizational costs; however virtual volunteering programs designed from a perspective of strategic growth can help achieve program scale (Bezmalinovic Dhebar & Stokes, 2008). As pandemic restrictions continue to lift, consider the potential for virtual volunteering roles to contribute to ongoing minimization or recuperation of funds, as well as opportunities for virtual volunteers to increase capacity and augment organizational growth.

The list below offers 12 ways to engage virtual volunteers in your sport organizations during physical distancing:

1. Implementing return to sport plans

Create a return to sport committee to help customize and implement plans and policies that respect guidance from public health departments and sport governing bodies. Volunteers can help to refine contingency plans for training and competition to their specific local context, while ensuring all plans support a safe and quality experience for members. Volunteers can monitor the communications from relevant sport governing bodies for direction in this process to ensure the club is complying with guidelines and decision making.

2. Tap into new funding streams

Engage a volunteer with expertise in fundraising, sponsorship and/or grant writing to apply for relevant COVID-19 government subsidies, seek new funding opportunities, or develop a strategy to diversify the organization’s funding.

3. Coordinate communications for all return to play related inquiries

While much of the future of sport remains unknown, club members need to feel supported with clear communication related to the future of their sport club and its programs. Designate a group of volunteers to create a webpage and contact line for any return to sport related inquiries to ensure answers are consistent and members feel heard.

4. Support athlete training and skill development

Support current or new coaches in hosting online strength and conditioning or sport skill development sessions for their athletes. Volunteers could facilitate opportunities for coaches to share ideas, curate credible resources, create weekly fitness challenges to support activities, or coordinate an online session with a certified professional for multiple teams. Check out an example from the Oakville Soccer club’s program here.

5. Deliver educational content for members 

Tap into expertise amongst your membership or the broader community to deliver educational seminars for your athletes, parents, coaches and others. Topics could include mental health, conflict resolution, bullying prevention, concussion awareness, nutrition or inclusion (consider what is most relevant to your members or club objectives!), with volunteers delivering content based on expertise, and coordinating the sessions. Alternatively, recruit volunteers to identify credible content to share with members, such as TED Talks.

6. Expand the credentials of your volunteers by encouraging participation in an online certification program

Encourage volunteers to engage in online education or certification programs specific to their role. For example, encourage coaches to complete the NCCP Multi-Sport Training Modules or the Coaching Association of Canada’s new Safe Sport Training. Other national sport organizations also provide a range of training and professional development opportunities that can be explored and shared among volunteers such as the Keeping Girls in Sport module and Sport for Life course offerings.

7. Update the club website

A volunteer with website development experience can assess the functionality, accessibility and content of the sport organization’s website and make improvements. The website should be made accessible for persons with disabilities, and new features can be added such as closed-captioned videos. The site should accurately share the latest news on return to sport plans.   

8. Build a social media campaign to reinforce club values or follow a specific initiative

Social media campaigns can be developed by volunteers for present or future use to enhance the club’s communication efforts related to specific initiatives or values. Other campaigns could recognize the efforts of current volunteers and promote opportunities for others to get involved. To learn more about how to enhance your organization’s reputation via communications check out Building a pandemic communications strategy must start with this one-word question.

9. Develop an athlete mentorship program

Senior athletes can volunteer as mentors for younger athletes and check in regularly to help them with goal setting, motivation for training at home, and overall wellbeing. Experienced athletes can be introduced to volunteerism in sport in new ways and fuel their interest in coaching and other youth development pursuits.

10. Develop a regular social calendar for your sport club

Assign volunteers to a social committee to create opportunities for members and other volunteers to connect socially, even if they’re not yet on the field or in the pool. Online socials could include activities such as sport trivia nights, bingo, fun skill or activity challenges, cooking bake offs, and more!

11. Engage in the concept of micro- volunteering

Micro-volunteering is another fantastic option to keep volunteers engaged, but not overwhelm them. Some people may be more likely to volunteer their time in short and convenient, bite-sized chunks (i.e. 30 minutes or less). Micro-volunteering offers volunteers a series of easy tasks that can be done anytime, from their own homes, on their own terms. The concept isn’t new; it has historically been done mostly in the UK. Check out the UK-based Help from Home website for ideas and opportunities and download their exceptional free guide. Sport related micro-volunteering examples could include micro-consulting initiatives in the form of posing a question or generating a poll for your social media audience to garner feedback, creative input and ideas on things like club logo, creative artwork or marketing ideas.

12. Partner with other causes and organizations to give back to the community

COVID-19 has impacted many of society’s most vulnerable communities. Volunteers could reach out to local non-profit organizations outside of sport that might need support at this time and coordinate efforts to help among the club membership. Some clubs, such as the TriMuskoka Triathlon Club, have already contributed to hospitals and foodbanks to provide volunteer support and resources during this time of need. Research has shown that members are paying attention to and support their club’s efforts to engage in socially responsible initiatives (Misener, Morrison, Shier, & Babiak, 2020). Club members care deeply about the wider community and clubs who engage in social action may benefit through member loyalty and positive word of mouth.

Retaining virtual volunteers post-pandemic

As public health measures are relaxed and sport clubs begin to offer on-site programming again, virtual volunteers can continue to represent an important lifeblood of a club’s operations. Many of the roles listed above will remain relevant and can evolve into ongoing volunteer roles. Thinking of volunteers beyond the arena or board room can help clubs remain resilient in times of change, but also promote diversity and innovation within the volunteer force.

After orientation, be sure to consistently check in on virtual volunteers. Research shows that after 6 months of taking on a role, perception of organizational support changes and volunteers slowly can feel less appreciated if the organization becomes less attentive to the needs and concerns of volunteers (Eisenberger et. al, 2011). Aim for the latter by recognizing your virtual volunteers and creating opportunities for meaningful contributions and connections.

This is the second article in a two-part series about the links between nutrition and sport-related concussion. The first article focused on the role of nutrition in concussion recovery. This article focuses on the potential for nutrition to contribute to sub-concussion injury protection.  

Repetitive sub-concussive injuries are the result of repetitive impacts on the head causing linear and rotational acceleration forces on the brain, but that are below a threshold to result in an observed or diagnosed concussion. Athletes participating in contact and combat sports such as football, soccer, rugby, boxing, wrestling and lacrosse experience a high number of these repetitive sub-concussive head impacts over the course of their training and competitive seasons. For example, research in elite rugby discovered that players experienced an average of 564±618 impacts per season (King, Hume, Brughelli & Gissane, 2014). In American football, measurements revealed youth and college-level athletes experienced anywhere from 100-1,000 impacts during the season (Bailes, Petraglia, Omalu, Neuman, Talavage, 2013).

Athletes with this type of injury often show no symptoms, and are therefore not removed from play (Johnson, Neuberger, Gay, Hallett, & Slobounov, 2014; King, Hume, Brughelli & Gissane, 2014; Bailes, Petraglia, Omalu, Neuman, Talavage, 2013). Sub-concussive injuries are still poorly understood, but evidence is starting to accumulate regarding their potential detrimental impact on long-term brain health, including chronic neurological syndromes such as chronic traumatic encephalopathy, which can result in a range of cognitive, emotional and behaviour difficulties and dysfunction (Oliver, Anzalone, & Turner, 2018; Baugh et al, 2012).

Cheerful young rugby players on the field

The effective management and prevention of sport-related sub-concussive injuries is complicated. Many of these injuries go unreported, undiagnosed and untreated because of the lack of short-term symptoms, creating barriers to effective management and recovery. Changes to rules and common practices within contact and combat sports can help prevent sub-concussive injuries, but changes to policy and sport culture can take time. What other options exist to support athlete’s health?

The goal of this article is to examine nutrition-related strategies that show promise in being protective to the brain in sports that experience a high volume of sub-concussive injuries. Both dietary patterns and nutritional supplementation have shown promise in this area when strategies are adopted both before and after impacts. The article will provide general dietary guidelines and explore specific nutrients and supplements that show strong evidence around neuroprotection.

Dietary strategies: Hydration and high-quality fats and carbohydrates

Similar to recommendations to support those with a diagnosed concussion, specific dietary strategies should also be adopted in sports with a high risk of sub-concussion injuries. Factors including dehydration and a diet high in saturated fat and refined sugar have shown to be harmful for cognitive function as they increase levels of oxidative stress (Oliver, Anzalone, & Turner, 2018; Meeusen & Decroix 2018; Wu, Molteni, Ying, & Gomez-Pinilla, 2003; Wu, Ying, & Gomez-Pinilla, 2004; Gomez-Pinilla, & Kostenkova, 2008; Wu, Ying, & Gomez-Pinilla, 2014; Weber et al, 2013). Athletes should work to adopt a nutrition foundation that includes high-quality carbohydrate and fat choices 80-90% of the time, as well as optimizing daily hydration. Table 1 outlines a variety of high-quality carbohydrate and fat choices, along with hydrating fluids. Looking to the support from a sport dietitian can help an athlete improve their day-to-day foundational diet.

Table 1: List of hydrating fluids, high-quality carbohydrate and fat choices (Maughan et al, 2016; HealthLinkBC, 2018)
Hydrating Fluid Choices High-Quality Carbohydrates Choices High Quality Fat Choices
  • Water
  • Lower fat cow’s milk
  • Soy milk
  • Almond milk
  • Other plant-based beverages (ex. Ripple®)
  • Kefir
  • Homemade
  • Smoothie
  • Cold and hot soups
  • 100% fruit juice
  • Decaffeinated coffee and tea
  • Caffeinated coffee and tea (up to 400mg caffeine)
  • Electrolyte drinks and sports drinks are also great for hydration, but should be used in specific circumstances with direction from a sport dietitian.

Fiber rich grains:

  • Quinoa
  • Long grain rice
  • Barley, Kamut, Aramath
  • Wholegrain, multigrain or sprouted grain pasta, bread products and cereals
  • Old fashioned or steel cut oatmeal, muesli, cream of wheat
  • Multi or whole grain cereals
  • High fibre granola bars (>4g fibre and <8g sugar)

Legumes:

  • chickpeas, kidney beans, lentils, split peas, black beans, etc.

Starchy vegetables:

  • Yams, sweet potatoes, potatoes, corn, pumpkin, squash.

All fruits:

  • whole fresh and frozen fruit, canned fruit in water, dried fruit not coated in sugar.

Dairy & dairy alternatives:

  • Lower fat plain or naturally sweetened fruit yogurts
  • Lower fat diary and non-dairy beverages
  • Fatty fish such as salmon, sardines, mackerel, anchovies
  • Lean poultry and red meats (ex/ extra lean ground beef)
  • Lower fat dairy products (0-2% milk fat)
  • Eggs (consider omega-3 eggs)
  • Olives
  • Avocados
  • Extra-virgin olive oil, avocado oil, canola oil, sunflower, safflower oil
  • Non-hydrogenated margarines
  • Variety of nuts and seeds
  • Nut butters (especially natural nut butters)

Athletes participating in high sub-concussion risk sports should also ensure they are well hydrated during training and competition, and work with a sport dietitian to fine tune their pre-training and pre-game meals and snacks to include quality carbohydrates and fat options. Table 2 provides athletes with some general direction on dietary recommendations and ideas around training and competition.

Table 2: Pre-training/pre-game meal and snack ideas (Thomas, Erdman, & Burke, 2016)
Timing Before Training 2-4hrs before 1-2hrs before 30-60min before
Dietary Recommendations
  • 5-10ml fluid/kg body weight (~2-4ml/lbs). Achieve pale yellow colour of urine.
  • Carbohydrate-rich meal with moderate amounts of protein and a small amount of healthy fats.
  • Sips of fluid to maintain hydration.
  • Carbohydrate-rich snack with low-moderate amounts of protein and fat
  • Sips of fluid to maintain hydration.
  • If needed: Small carbohydrate rich snack, low in protein and fat.

Sample Meal and Snack Ideas
  • Sandwich on whole wheat bagel with lean meat, low fat mayo and veggies along with a glass of 1-2% dairy or non-dairy beverage.
  • Stir-fry with veggies, chicken and ricecooked with olive oil with an added teriyaki sauce. Water to drink.
  • Pancakes and eggs with yogurt and fruit, plus water and 100% fruit juice.
  • Smoothie with 1-2% dairy or non-dairy beverage, fruit, Greek yogurt and added oats, blended.
  • Banana and peanut butter sandwich with water.
  • Homemade fruit and yogurt parfait: naturally flavoured Greek yogurt with chopped fruit and Kashi Go Lean cereal or muesli on top.
  • Sips of a sports drink (homemade or commercial).
  • Granola bar plus water.
  • 1/2-1 banana and water.

Creatine

As described in part one of this series, creatine provides a reserve of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) that can support the increased energy requirements associated with recovery of the brain after a concussion (Ainsley Dean, Arikan, Opitz, & Sterr, 2017). From a neuroprotective perspective, ensuring a diet high in creatine to increase brain concentrations could contribute to maintaining energy homeostasis. This neuroprotective effect was shown when healthy subjects were supplemented with creatine monohydrate and then asked to complete a number of cognitive tasks in an oxygen deprived state, simulating the energy crisis experienced with sport concussion and potentially sub-concussive injuries (Turner, Byblow, & Grant, 2015; Ainsley-Dean, Arikan, Opitz, & Sterr, 2017). Participants receiving prior supplementation showed improved cognitive performance in this hypoxic-induced state (Turner, Byblow, & Grant, 2015). By creating a high concentration of creatine in the brain ahead of injury, a buffering action may be created to support recovery after sub-concussion injuries (Oliver, Anzalone, & Turner, 2018; Kreider et al, 2017).

Taking creatine prior to injury may be the best course of action because increasing creatine stores in the brain is a slow process (Ainsley-Dean, Arikan, Opitz, & Sterr, 2017). Compared to muscle creatine stores, which can be topped up in as little as 5-7 days through a combination of a animal protein-based diet and supplementation (Kreider et al, 2017), creatine uptake capacity in the brain is difficult to estimate and higher levels of supplementation for longer periods may be needed to increase concentrations (Dechent, Pouwels, Wilken, Hanefeid, & Frahm, 1999; Kreider et al, 2017). For example, four weeks of supplementation with creatine (20g per day) showed considerable variability in total creatine increases in the brain between subjects (3.5-13.3%), with the smallest increases seen in the largest subjects (Dechent, Pouwels, Wilken, Hanefeid, & Frahm, 1999). More recent research has shown that 20g of creatine provided for 7 days increased brain creatine by an average of 9.2% (Turner, Byblow, & Grant, 2015).

Specific creatine dosing strategies and timelines to increase brain stores are still needed, however a longer loading period of 2-4 weeks at 20g/day followed by a maintenance dose of 5g/day throughout high sub-concussion risk periods in an athlete’s season is a potential recommendation (Oliver, Anzalone, & Turner, 2018). If you are thinking about a creatine supplement, first speak to a sport dietitian to discuss a safe and appropriate supplement and dosing strategy.

Omega-3 fatty acids

The neuroprotective role and mechanism of omega-3 fatty acids is multidimensional and not yet fully understood. Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), a specific omega-3 fatty acid, has shown neuroprotective effects in rodent models with greatest efficiency in doses of approximately 40mg/kg/day, equivalent to approximately 1-3g/day for the typical human (Bailes & Mills, 2010; Mills, Hadley, & Bailes, 2011). Since most athletes, especially those involved in combat and contact sports, are larger than the “typical” human, high doses equivalent to 3-4g/day may be more appropriate (Oliver, et al, 2016).

Research generated from NCAA football players examined responses to DHA doses of 2, 4 and 6g/day and their neuroprotective role throughout an entire season (Oliver et al, 2016). Results showed that all supplemented doses of DHA reduced the rise in specific head trauma biomarkers linked with damage to the brain during the football season, compared to a placebo (Oliver et al, 2016). This demonstrated the importance of increasing plasma DHA concentration in athletes at high risk of sub-concussion injuries, and reinforced that higher doses maybe required in larger athletes (Oliver et al, 2016).

Some food sources provide a rich concentration of DHA and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA – another omega-3 fatty acid), specially fish sources including salmon, mackerel, anchovies and sardines (Dietitians of Canada, 2016). However, unless consumed daily, it is difficult to meet needs, especially in high sub-concussion risk sports. In fact, omega-3 Index scores (indicating the percentage of EPA and DHA in the blood) have declined significantly in North America, from 8.23% in 1909 to 3.84% in 1999 (Blasbalg, Hibbeln, Ramsden, Majchrzak, & Rawlings, 2011). Amongst athletes, a study of German elite winter endurance athletes revealed the majority were below the target index score range of 8-11% (Von Schacky, Kemper, Haslbauer, & Halle, 2014). This suggests supplementation may be required in addition increasing dietary intake.

Athletes participating in high sub-concussion risk sports should look at ways to increase their dietary omega-3 intake, and from there speak with a sport dietitian about safe and effective supplementation strategies. Larger athletes like those in rugby, hockey and football may required higher doses compared to smaller framed athletes (Oliver et al, 2016; Oliver, Anzalone, & Turner, 2018). If recommending a specific omega-3 supplement, sport dietitians should consider the compliance and tolerability of these supplements as they can cause gastric upset, especially if recommending larger doses. A combination of food sources and supplementation may be the best course of action.

Curcumin/Curcumin + DHA

Curcumin is the active compound in the spice turmeric, used medicinally for its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. Curcumin dissolves in fats and can cross the blood-brain barrier exhibiting neuroprotective properties on the brain both before and after injury (Petraglia, Winkler, & Bailes, 2011). Most of the research around curcumin pre and post brain injury has been done in animal models, and  also examined the combination of curcumin and the omega-3 acid DHA, with their combined effects showing promise compared to the nutrients taken individually. Animals provided with a diet of curcumin and DHA prior to impact showed two important scores: 1) higher levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor, which plays an important role in growth, maturation and maintenance of neurons; and 2) improved cognitive scores during cognitive learning tests (Wu, Ying, & Gomez-Pinilla, 2014). Results also showed the combined effect better regulated enzymes that actually create DHA, and more recent research has shown that other omega-3 fatty acids (e.g. Alpha-linoleic acid) better metabolized DHA when curcumin was added to the diet, leading to higher concentration in the brain (Wu et al, 2015).

One of the major drawbacks of curcumin is its poor bioavailability, with limited absorption from the gut and quick elimination from the body (Oliver, Anzalone, & Turner, 2018). Efforts have been made by different companies to formulate curcumin to increase absorption within the body, however currently there is no specific dose recommendation for curcumin supplementation. Athletes should speak to a sport dietitian about specific curcumin supplements or ways to add turmeric to meals and to improve absorption.

Vitamin D

Vitamin D (the “sunshine” vitamin) is another therapeutic nutritional intervention for brain injury, and supplementation has shown neuroprotection in areas around traumatic, ischaemic and degenerative brain injury (Lawrence & Sharma, 2016). Vitamin D deficiency in older populations has been associated with neurodegenerative disorders, including increased prevalence of Alzheimer’s disease, dementia and cerebrovascular lesions (Petraglia, Winkler, & Bailes, 2011; Lawrence, & Sharma, 2016). In fact, cognitive impairments were up to four times greater in older adults that were severely deficient in vitamin D (Llewellyn., et al 2010). The mechanisms behind this neuroprotection, as well as its role in recovery post concussion, are complex and multifaceted with vitamin D showing reduction in inflammation, reducing neuronal death, and improving cognitive functional outcomes (Lawrence & Sharma, 2016). This suggests that vitamin D may possess neuroprotective properties and the importance in avoiding deficiency (Petraglia, Winkler, & Bailes, 2011).

Specific to athletes, vitamin D deficiency of <50nmol/L is common, with vitamin D status depending on a number of factors including age, genetics, geographic locations and the amount of sun exposure which is influenced by the time of year, protective equipment worn, sunscreen use, etc.(Lawrence & Sharma, 2016; Larson-Meyer, 2015). Given the neuroprotective role of vitamin D, assessing and optimizing vitamin D status with a goal of >75nmol/L (Larson-Meyer, 2015; Owens, Allison & Close, 2018) throughout the year would be a valuable intervention adopted by high-performance sport science teams, especially those working with high sub-concussion risk sports. Supplementation strategies have often been considered as the best course of action – access to adequate sun exposure can be difficult with athlete’s training schedules and location; and dietary sources (including certain fish, eggs and fortified products including dairy and dairy alternatives) provide roughly 200 IU/day (Lawrence & Sharma, 2016) well below recommended intakes of 600-4000 IU/day (Dietitians of Canada, 2019). Currently, there are no specific guidelines on vitamin D supplementation needs specific to neuroprotection or concussion recovery. At this point athletes involved in sports with high sub-concussion risk should ensure they are avoiding deficiency and working with both a sport dietitian and sport medicine doctor to monitor and optimize their vitamin D status (Larson-Meyer, 2015; Lawrence & Sharma, 2016).

Implementing a nutritional approach to sub-concussion protection in high-risk sports

With the knowledge of what nutrients may protect or limit the effects of sub-concussion injury, the following steps can help athletes, coaches and other members of the support team apply the above nutrition considerations.

Key tips for athletes

Officials are considered by some to be the unsung heroes of sport, responsible for upholding the rules and intentions of sport. SIRC sat down with Marie-Soleil Beaudoin – Canadian soccer referee and instructor of physiology and biophysics at Dalhousie University – to talk about her journey from the community soccer field to officiating at the 2019 FIFA Women’s World Cup.

SIRC: Lets start with your early involvement in sport – did you start in soccer?

Marie-Soleil Beaudoin (MSB): I grew up in a soccer family. I’m the oldest of three girls. We all played soccer and our parents coached. When I was old enough, I started coaching. After my sister started refereeing, I made the switch, motivated by the fact it was a paid position!

At that time, I was 20 years old. Now, individuals often start refereeing at a young age. I think my age and maturity provided a type of buffer against the negative dynamics we sometimes see on the field, between referees, coaches, athletes and parents. If I was younger, those types of dynamics likely would have made me quit.

I really enjoyed refereeing, and started to work my way up the system. I was motivated by the certification processes, enjoying the challenge of competency testing (e.g. laws of the game) and on-field performance assessments. I achieved national certification in 2013 and FIFA certification in 2014.

Refereeing for FIFA opened the doors to range of new experiences and opportunities – traveling internationally and experiencing the sport through different cultures. My first tournament was the FIFA U-17 Women’s World Cup in Jordan. It was absolutely eye-opening coming from Canada and refereeing a women’s tournament in the Middle East. It wasn’t at all what I expected. There I was, officiating a match for 16 and 17 year old girls, surrounded by 17,000 cheering spectators. It blew my mind, and challenged what I thought the middle east was about.

SIRC: How are officials managed at the international level?

MSB: FIFA works in cycles, so they started preparing for the 2019 Women’s World Cup in 2016. Many people also don’t realize that at the international level, officials are assigned into teams, with one centre referee (that’s me!) and two assistant referees (Princess Brown and Stephanie-Dale Yee Sing), that work together through the cycle. For me and my team, our first FIFA tournament was the one in Jordan. Our performance led us to be included in the preliminary list of officials considered for France 2019. From then on, FIFA appointed us to different tournaments and seminars to give us the best chance to be ready for the Women’s World Cup. The final list of officials selected for the WWC was released in December 2018.

Spain vs. Japan U17 WWC Semi-Final — Jordan, 2016

This team approach to officiating is valuable. On the field, I make the final decisions, but I may only have part of the information during play – so we rely on each other. Good communication within our team is critical to success. As the referee, I’m responsible for building our relationship through training, game experience and discussion. For example, to support decision-making on the field, we have developed communication shortcuts, providing efficient ways for communicating fouls, penalty kicks and offsides.  

However, I also play a leadership role in building our relationships off the field – another important component to success. As international-level officials, we are away from family and friends for extended periods of time, living in hotels, participating in stressful meetings, and dealing with the pressure of games. There are a lot of emotional ups and downs and we can’t take those pressures onto the field. As a leader, my role is to ensure my teammates are happy, feeling emotionally stable, focused on our goals, and are well trained so we can perform well. Luckily my assistants are as driven, motivated and as focused as me.

Working with my two assistant referees, I’m also reminded how privileged I am to be in this position. My two assistants are Jamaican – their lifestyle at home is completely different than mine. For example, one of my assistants used money she received from a tournament to install running water at her parents’ house. For them, officiating is their life and livelihood, with impacts on quality of life for them and their extended family. For me, officiating is a second career, which I balance with my role as an instructor at Dalhousie University. I really value the opportunities officiating at this level have given me to have my eyes opened to the lived realities of people around the world. I am honoured to work with people who came from such a relatively challenging position and who have excelled at the highest levels of sport.

SIRC: What are some of the challenges and success you have experienced over the years?

MSB: One of my most difficult experiences with the game was as a high-level provincial referee in Ontario. To get a national badge I needed to perform well in the men’s league, and in one game I made a number of important mistakes on the field. The experience really affected my confidence and I actually considered quitting for a time because I was unable to enjoy the game. There is a very important mental component to being an official. You need to develop the coping skills and resilience to get over mistakes so they don’t affect the next game. I ended up turning to a sport psychologist to help me regain my confidence.

On the flip side, one of the greatest things I have experienced is the sense of community that exists amongst referees. I have made strong friendships within the community – friends that believed in me before I believed in myself, and who I could lean on during tough times.

In 2018 I gave birth to my first child. During the pregnancy, I wasn’t sure how my body and mind would be affected, and I questioned whether I would be able to step back into the same level of the sport. It could have been easy for decisions makers to skip over me, but I received a lot of support to get back on the field. In fact, at a FIFA event in 2018, seven of 44 women officials had given birth in the last year, enhancing the support within our group. Many of us struggled with fear of judgement, from others as well as ourselves, that returning to our officiating roles made us inadequate mothers (I was back on the field after only 7 months). Certainly, support from our partners and families makes doing that possible, but support from my community of officials helped normalize and give confidence to my decisions.

SIRC: Stepping onto an international stage as a referee must be stressful. How do you prepare for the games?

MSB: Preparation is key! For World Cup games there are technical and tactical coaches that help us prepare. They meet with us in advance to review how the teams play, discuss the key players, and generally what to expect. On the field we need to make split second decisions. Those decisions are easier if you know what to expect and can understand situations as they are happening.

In other games, responsibility for preparation rests on the officials’ shoulders. In addition to familiarizing myself with the teams, I really focus on my mental preparation. On the field I use key words to keep me focused, such as “breathe” to calm myself, and “next” to not dwell on specific situations and keep me grounded in the moment. I also often think of the teams as their colours so I don’t get caught up in the history and pressure that the teams bring to the field. At the 2019 World Cup I was officiating a game between France and Brazil. It was a high stakes game between the home team and an iconic team – France and Brazil. But I tried to think of them as simply “white” versus “yellow.”

All of this preparation does make a difference. Once the first whistle is blown I’m able to get into the zone. As officials, we’ve done it so many times, and we’re so well trained, that it feels natural. It’s leading up to the event that you have to stop yourself from getting caught up in the anticipatory stress.

SIRC: Officials play the role of diplomat or rule enforcer. Tell me about some of the interactions you’ve had on the field and the importance of communication skills.

MSB: Yes, refereeing is an art and a science. I’m more of an introverted person, so quick, responsive communication isn’t one of my natural strengths. Plus, I’m often required to communicate in English – my second language. As referees, we are often in situations where we have to calm athletes down or communicate a message to someone who doesn’t want to talk to you. However, communication skills are something I actively work on.

Canada vs. Brazil WNT Friendly — Toronto, 2015

I think empathy and respect are undervalued by a lot of referees – many step onto the field as authority figures. For me, when I step onto the field, I see 22 players, each with their own story, their own goals/injuries/pressures, who are all under pressure. My approach is to communicate where the line is, and hopefully the players work with you to uphold the laws and intentions of the game. But this is the best-case scenario. When conflict situations arise, I don’t take it personally. A lot of pressure is transferred by the athletes to the officials, who are sometimes considered in the way of the athlete’s or team’s performance.

Ninety-five percent of the games I officiate are men’s games, and sometimes there are raised eyebrows when they see my ponytail. In the past I have been tested by teams the first few times I officiate their games. But soon enough they realize I’m a good referee and forget about gender. There are a lot of challenges for women to officiate men’s games at all levels and in all countries. Luckily for me, I live in Canada, where the presence of women in male-dominated professions is more accepted than other places in the world. This makes the inherent challenges of being a woman leading a men’s game a little easier to take on.

SIRC: Tell me about the other roles of the referee

MSB: At the highest levels, officials play two important roles. The first has to do with player safety. As officials we prioritize safety by upholding the laws of the game. With concussion, for example, officials are responsible for stopping play in the event of suspected head injury and providing time for an athlete to be medically assessed. The second has to do with the spectacle of the “beautiful game.” We have the best seat in the house to enjoy the technical and tactical prowess of the players. We need to let the game flow so it stays interesting.

At the lower levels, ideally there is a reciprocal relationship between the officials and the teams to contribute to the development of the sport. I used to be the head referee at the Guelph Soccer club. There I emphasize a mentoring role amongst referees, that they need to be teachers for athletes or coaches that may not know the rules or etiquette of the game. Again, this is the type of situation that is easier for a 20 year old than a 14 year old.

SIRC: What do you make of the stories about negative coach or parent interactions with youth referees?

MSB: These situations are absolutely unacceptable. People know it’s not OK yell at kids in everyday life, but once they step on the field in their official’s jersey it’s somehow acceptable? Youth sport not only serves as a development opportunity for the athletes, but also for the referees – providing opportunities to develop their officiating skills and important life skills. The sad thing is that a number of measures are in place to deal with this type of abuse – for example, getting rid of standings and scoring for athletes under 12, and badges to indicate referee age. But they have not addressed the issues. These early officiating experiences are a formative time – for some youth, they may ultimately decide to work at a fast food chain than get yelled at on the field. Sadly this culture can affect officials of all ages, causing significant challenges with the long-term retention of officials.

SIRC: Many sports have seen technological advancements influencing training and competition. In soccer, the use of video assistant referee (VAR) was getting a lot of attention during last season.

MSB: I think these types of technical advances in the sport are not going anywhere – they’re here to stay. But I recognize their introduction hasn’t left anyone indifferent – it seems you either love it or hate it. From a referee perspective, VAR is a positive addition, but it does require some adaptations to what we used to do. For instance, it’s the worst feeling in the world to realize, after stepping off the field, that we made a mistake that impacted the outcome of the game. In these circumstances, VAR is a nice safety net. Ideally, the officials on the field see everything perfectly and we don’t need it. But, the second-best scenario is having teammates – the VARs – able to recommend we take a second look at the incident. It’s comforting for officials and for the teams to know that significant mistakes will be minimized.

I think advances in training and physical conditioning have also influenced the game – for the athletes, obviously; but also for the officials. We now have tools to track the movement of referees on the field and better understand the physical demands of officiating the sport. This helps with our physical preparation for the games. I have to train, just like the athletes.

SIRC: You’ve talked about some of the challenges you’ve confronted as a female official. What do you think about the current state of women’s soccer overall?

MSB: I really like officiating women’s games. Being on the field, the athletes are so technically and tactically gifted. For a variety of reasons, I think it’s a purer form of the sport – they play for pride, they play hard, they don’t do the drama, they play by the rules of the game. Women pour their hearts out on the field, and I think the spectators notice it too. I think the gains the women’s game have made in terms of recognition and respect are well deserved.

SIRC: To wrap up, our time together, what advice would you give aspiring officials?

MSB: These are always tough questions! I think the first would be to enjoy the process. Think about your dreams, but consider what goals you’ll have to achieve to make the dream a reality. What has kept me motivated was the challenge of refining my skills and building my experience. I was always looking forward to the next, more difficult game. I think success in this type of role requires that you relish the challenge.

The second piece of advice would be to be humble and learn from every game. This is true at every level, form community sport to international competition. This approach to officiating lets you learn from mistakes and complicated situations to be better for the next game.

About Marie-Soleil Beaudoin

Marie-Soleil Beaudoin is a Canadian soccer referee and instructor of physiology and biophysics at Dalhousie University. At the 2019 Women’s World Cup in France, she was the referee in charge of four matches including the Semi-Final between Netherlands and Sweden. Following her performance at the World Cup, she received a prestigious appointment to the inaugural Trophée des Championnes. Beaudoin also refereed the final of the FIFA U-17 Women’s World Cup Uruguay 2018 and the inaugural Canadian Premier League match in Halifax, NS; and at the 2015 Toronto Pan American Games. Earlier in her career, she also officiated women’s tournaments for U Sports and the Canada Summer Games. Marie-Soleil has a PhD in Human Health and Nutritional Sciences from the University of Guelph, and lives with her partner and son in Halifax, Nova Scotia.

Picture this: it’s the first session of a popular youth sport program at a busy community facility. Dozens of youth are greeting each other, checking out the space, and mingling with coaches on the bleachers. The excitement is palpable as youth move onto the court. Soon the space is filled with the satisfying sounds of balls bouncing on hardwood, smacking against palms, grazing nets, and rattling backboards. Eager voices rise above the background music as youth encourage (and occasionally needle) their peers, and the air temperature steadily increases as coaches keep the program moving from warm-ups to drills to game-play and finally a participatory debrief. After a hearty cheer, the circle breaks and youth stream into the atrium or waiting area to grab snacks, meet family members, rehash the days’ plays and continue catching up with friends.

For 10 points: what’s missing from this wonderful window in time?

Congratulations if your first thought was “a pre-program evaluation.” While easy to overlook, a rigorous and theoretically grounded program evaluation is the key to determining the impact of program participation on positive youth outcomes, from physical literacy to essential life skills such as leadership and self-esteem. Even the immediate, experience-based objectives such as satisfaction, engagement, and enjoyment must be evaluated to determine whether program goals are being met.

Program evaluation – too often last on the priority list

So why is the need for program evaluation in youth sport so commonly ignored or brushed aside? In the context of a highly engaging sport program, the importance of program evaluation tends to be eclipsed by other activities. It is easy to assume that since youth are attending the program and participating in the planned activities, the program is achieving its intended impact. Many organizations – 86% of Ontario non-profits, according to a 2018 report – do not have staff with experience or expertise designing and implementing program evaluations (Ontario Nonprofit Network, 2018). Organizations may not know what outcome to measure or how to measure it (Salesforce, 2019). Lack of money, lack of appropriate staff, and lack of time to implement program evaluations have been cited as the most potent barriers to conducting evaluations and using evaluation findings – and increased investment in program evaluation is a known need (Ontario Nonprofit Network, 2018; Technology Affinity Group, 2018). The need for better tools to capture the impact of sport on youth development is also well-documented (Sportanddev, 2011). But perhaps the number one reason for poor or absent program evaluations in the youth sport setting – and the issue to be addressed in this article – is the difficulty of engaging youth in evaluative processes.

Engaging youth in evaluation – like “catching fish with your hands”

Youth are notoriously difficult to engage in pre- and post-program evaluation. Collecting survey responses can be like catching fish with your hands, with an average response rate of 10-20% in the field (Fryrear, 2015). The effort and hours invested in following-up with youth through phone calls, emails, and in-person reminders can present a diminishing return on investment as well as a deflating experience for staff when response rates remain low despite the best efforts of all involved. Typical survey platforms can not compete with Instagram, YouTube, TikTok, and the latest, greatest games and apps. On a typical day, teens spend 6.5 hours on-screen media use and pre-teens spend 4.5 (Joshi et al., 2019). A well-crafted evaluation survey should take no more than 10 or 15 minutes to complete. Is occasionally spending around 5% of your daily screen time on a sport-related survey too much to ask? We don’t think so – but the statistics disagree.  

Evaluation innovation at MLSE LaunchPad

At MLSE LaunchPad, a creative and innovative approach to youth engagement in program evaluation has increased youth and coach buy-in and generated more and better data. Evaluation findings have been used to increase program quality, enhance program impacts, and improve strategies to appeal and report to donors.

This article shares several strategies used at MLSE Launchpad to successfully engage youth in program evaluation processes. We define “youth” broadly, from ages 6 to 29. Our experience concerns diverse urban youth attending free programs at a collaborative Sport For Development facility located in downtown Toronto. Our population includes a high proportion of racialized youth, newcomer youth, and youth from low-income families, with an approximately equal balance of boys and girls. However, these learnings may be applied in a range of settings, including competitive and fee-based programs, and will be useful in any organization where leaders and administrators see the need to engage more youth – and engage youth more effectively – in evaluation processes.

Current practices in the field

Surveys are a common tool for evaluating outcomes in youth sport programs. Surveys may be created from scratch to address specific outcomes of interest to the sport organization, or may incorporate previously developed outcome measures such as a self-esteem scale or physical literacy questionnaire, which have been tested and validated. Surveys are generally delivered using pencil and paper or through online services such as SurveyMonkey, with data later transferred to software such as Excel for further analysis, visualization, and reporting. In some organizations, the onus is on coaches and program leaders to collect the needed data. Other organizations rely on management staff, volunteers, or external evaluators and consultants. In most cases, response rates are very low, incentivization to complete surveys is ineffective, and the burden of labour to boost the number of respondents and manage resulting data is unsustainable.

Other evaluation techniques employed in the youth sport setting include observed assessments of fundamental movement skills, fitness level, or other outcomes relating to physical performance. Focus groups or interviews with key stakeholders are often used to generate qualitative data, including feedback on program experience and less tangible outcomes that may be more difficult to assess quantitatively, such as how participants intend to apply program learnings outside of the program. Focus group data and a mixed-methods approach can also increase the usefulness of program evaluation results in storytelling and stakeholder engagement.

Typical approaches to program evaluation present several issues relevant to the youth sport setting. Published scales and surveys developed in academic settings tend to be lengthy and may include language not appropriate for youth. It is difficult to locate age-appropriate questionnaires to assess many outcomes of interest in the sport sector. And many surveys use a more clinical or deficit-oriented approach, which can be off-putting for youth and contradicts a Positive Youth Development approach to sport programming (Fraser-Thomas et al., 2005). When tools are not well-designed for their intended purpose, the quality of the resulting data is reduced, and utility is diminished.

Observed movement assessments also present many barriers to implementation. The large amount of space, time, and human resources required make this type of evaluation impractical in many settings. Physical “tests” may be viewed as boring or a waste of time by youth; as such, obtaining the required level of effort and engagement may not be possible. Coaches may resent the incursion into program time – time that they see as better spent on skill development or competitive play. Indeed, within the context of an 8-week program cycle, spending one session each on pre- and post-program movement assessment eats up 25% of available program time.

Focus groups also require the diversion of time from program activities, or that youth attend additional sessions to participate. With many youth rushing from school to their sport program, squeezing in dinner and homework before bedtime, and possibly juggling a part-time job, volunteer role, or family responsibilities, additional time commitments may not be feasible. Youth would naturally rather be on the court – or off engaging in their own lives.

MLSE LaunchPad’s MISSION Measurement Model

The “MISSION” acronym encompasses best practices that emerged from three years of experience working in our setting. The principles have been codified and applied to all our research and evaluation work, informing the design and implementation of our evaluation frameworks, processes and tools, as well as our research partnerships.

Minimal – Only survey youth when results will be used in decision-making.

This principle decreases the burden on youth, helps to avoid survey fatigue, and encourages high engagement by demonstrating to youth that their feedback leads to changes they can see. The end results are increased efficacy and administrative clarity on how evaluation data will be used, i.e. for the specific decision-making purpose that the data were collected to support.

I-statements – Phrase survey items as personal statements.

In our experience surveying more than 10,000 youth participants, I-statements elicit a stronger personal connection and make more sense to youth respondents because they can easily “try the statement on” – resulting in more honest responses that better reflect youth outcomes. For example, we use “I see myself as a leader” or “I feel I have a lot to be proud of” instead of “Do you see yourself as a leader?” or “Do you feel you have a lot to be proud of?”

Short – Use the fewest survey items needed to achieve meaningful results.

We strive to keep our outcome measures brief, with most consisting of approximately ten items. In cases where a program wishes to measure two outcomes (e.g. self-esteem and social competence), the resulting survey will be about 20 items long. This cuts down on time spent completing surveys, keeps youth engaged in the process, and decreases the risk of less reliable data that can result from youth scrolling through a long survey as quickly as possible without really reading and considering the items or response options. Limiting the number of outcome measures also leaves room to incorporate additional process-related questions, such as level of interest in a new initiative, satisfaction with an existing program, or the best day of the week to schedule a special event; or questions of special interest to funders.

Strengths-based – Phrase survey items positively to reinforce positive youth outcomes.

Positively phrased survey items keep the focus on strengths and not on weaknesses, while still allowing a youth to indicate that they do not currently experience the positive attribute being referenced by disagreeing with the statement. Negatively worded items are of questionable utility in surveying youth (Jackson Barnette, 2000), can project a diagnostic sentiment, and create a survey completion experience that can elicit negative emotions or alienate youth. For example, the survey items “I feel respected at my program” or “I feel useful” encourage the respondent to reflect on positive attributes that they may already possess or be developing through the program. This is in stark contrast to the deficit-based items of “I do not feel respected at my program” and “I feel useless.”

Involve coaches – Enlist the coach or youth leader in survey design and delivery.

Evaluation is not a one-person job left only to evaluators, but rather a key part of the program fabric. Front line staff are among the greatest strengths of quality sport programs. Youth-adult relationships are an important determinant of positive youth outcomes, and many youth develop meaningful and long-term relationships with their coaches and other program leaders. As such, coaches and program leaders are often better positioned to pass out tablets for program evaluation purposes or to work through simple surveys with very young participants than management-level or evaluation staff. At best, data collection is a collaborative effort involving each of the above parties – coaches, managers and evaluators – to maximize response rates and data quality, and ensure comprehension of instructions.

Online – Collect data digitally to maximize youth engagement and honesty.

Current research suggests youth are more honest with technology than they are face-to-face with another human (Radovic et al., 2018). Given our increased reliance on digital technology for everything from social interaction to banking to education, this is unsurprising. We can capitalize on this reality by collecting data through engaging digital platforms that incorporate elements of gamification and competition, much like youth’s favorite mobile games and apps. A SurveyMonkey questionnaire achieves part of the aim but presents a bland and unappealing design. Using more enticing mobile-friendly platforms can result in greater enjoyment for youth respondents, increased response rates, and increased buy-in from staff when youth complete program evaluations on their own time – saving valuable program time. At MLSE LaunchPad, on average, 2/3 of youth complete their pre-program survey independently in advance of the first program session. On average, we achieve an 86% response rate.

No Neutrality – Use yes/no and 4-point scales. Eliminate “unsure” as an option.

A Likert scale is a type of rating scale used to measure attitudes or opinions. Respondents are asked to rate items based on level of agreement, frequency of a thought or action, or importance of the survey item (Iowa State University, 2010). Youth prefer Likert scales over other survey formats, finding them easier to complete (van Laerhoven et al., 2007). However, within a five-point Likert scale, youth tend towards a neutral point when it is offered as an option (Dalal et al., 2014). Based on our experiences, MLSE LaunchPad uses 4-point scales with response options ranging from Strongly Disagree to Strongly Agree, or Yes/No questions in cases where the nuanced response that a Likert scale allows is not required.

Take Your Evaluation Courtside

In addition to applying our MISSION measurement model, another key tactic used to increase youth engagement in evaluation processes has been conducting evaluation assessments “courtside” wherever possible. This means distributing tablets for survey completion on the sidelines or in the bleachers, rather than in a classroom or waiting area. Youth feel as if they are still part of the action and not missing out on program time, and coaches can better support both on-court and evaluation activities. We have extended this tactic to our qualitative data collection, conducting brief courtside interviews post-program to solicit youth’s reflections. Having just stepped off the court, we find youth are focused and better able to articulate their program experience.

Applying these practices in your setting

Some of the effective strategies and tactics detailed above admittedly require a high level of resources to execute, including time, space, and technology. Here are several low-resource ideas for implementing some of our key learnings to increase youth engagement in evaluation processes.

1. Focus! Be specific about what you need to evaluate.

Take a minimalist approach to evaluation and measure only what you need to. Stronger results are often generated by focusing evaluation efforts on 1-2 priority outcomes. You are likely to experience higher youth engagement by simply eliminating any surveys or individual questions that are unnecessary. Be clear about what data you require to make decisions relating to future programming, quality improvement and budgeting, and remove everything else.

2. Say it with fewer words.

Do your surveys contain redundant questions or are the questions lengthy, containing multiple ideas within a single run-on sentence? Find ways to simplify, editing all surveys with brevity and clarity in mind. Don’t be afraid to play around with your surveys until you get it right. Although results may not be comparable across different versions, improving your survey to support higher engagement is likely more important than staying consistent.

3. Assess (or re-assess) outcome measures with care.

If your program uses a standardized outcome measure to assess youth progress relating to a key area of positive development, what do you know about the outcome measure? Who developed it, when was it created, and in what contexts has it been used? Has it been validated for use with your demographic, considering age, gender, race and rural vs. urban populations – and if yes, when was the validation completed? Language evolves quickly, and words that made sense to teens in 1985 may be unclear to today’s youth. Consult existing resources to locate youth-friendly outcome measures, or work with an evaluator to develop your survey. See the resources below for some good starting places.

4. Get coaches involved.

Coaches and other front-line staff will engage in data collection more enthusiastically when they know what information they are collecting and how the data will be used, especially if they had a hand in designing the survey content. Coach feedback is important to ensure that the right questions are being asked in the right way, and that evaluation processes do not create barriers to participation for youth. Coach support is also essential to drive home to youth the importance of evaluation, to implement program evaluation efficiently, and to create a culture of evaluation within your organization.

5. Digitize your process.

Digital evaluation processes are not only more engaging for youth, they are also easier and more efficient for staff to manage, and allow for more rapid and thorough utilization of the data generated. Ideally, a single system would be used to manage your participant database, program registration, scheduling, communications, and program evaluation. In the absence of comprehensive software, a good compromise is to centralize different types of data in a common spreadsheet document, including demographics, registration, attendance, and survey responses or other program outcomes. This eliminates redundancies in data collection that can be frustrating for staff and youth, and allows for useful and informative queries – for example, looking at relationships between program type and attendance level, or between gender and program outcomes.

6. Incentivize engagement!

We believe strongly in letting youth know that we value their opinions and feedback by providing intentional and modest incentives for completing evaluation activities. This can range from providing a meal alongside your focus group, to entering all youth who complete pre- and post-program surveys into an end-of-season draw for a piece of sport apparel or equipment. Low-cost incentives include badges, stickers, and certificates for younger participants; small items donated by sponsors, such as low-value gift cards, reusable water bottles or socks; or admission to a special event such as a pizza party or sport-related outing.

High evaluation engagement in youth sport – YES, WE CAN!

At MLSE LaunchPad, an experimental approach to program evaluation has led to the strategic model and specific tactics outlined above. Three years of learning and iterative improvement have effectively increased youth engagement in evaluation processes at our facility, with wide-ranging benefits impacting youth, front-line staff, management, and the entire youth sport sector through shared learnings that can be applied in a variety of settings. Fun and evaluation are not mutually exclusive. We encourage you to adopt this attitude and approach in your next program evaluation with the objective of making it a little more enjoyable and engaging for everyone involved. Happy youth, happy you. Don’t hesitate to reach out to our team to start a conversation on these or other research and evaluation issues in youth sport.

Recommended Resources

Assessing Outcomes in Child and Youth Programs: A Practical Handbook – Excellent resources for planning and conducting program evaluations, and a compilation of evaluation tools.

Canadian Evaluation Society – A roster of Credentialed Evaluators practicing in each province, as well as ethical guidelines and program evaluation standards.

MLSE LaunchPad – Reach out to our team to discuss current practices and issues relating to evaluation design and implementation in the youth sport space.

YouthREX – The Youth Research and Evaluation eXchange – A knowledge hub, a library of evaluation tools, and several professional development resources.

There has recently been an increasing number of athletes bravely coming forward to share their stories about the psychological distress and associated mental health challenges they experienced during their athletic careers (e.g., Michael Phelps, Gracie Gold, and Demar Derozan). Athletes are not immune to experiencing psychological distress and rates of mental illness among athletes are comparable to their non-athlete peers (Rice et al., 2016). Research has long suggested that athletes participating in sport, particularly at competitive and elite levels, may be at-risk for experiencing psychological distress and associated mental disturbance because of the various sport-specific stressors they may face, such as sustaining athletic injury, conflict with teammates, and pressures to achieve athletic success (Sudano, Miles, & Collins, 2017), as well as more personal life stressors, such as challenges with their sexuality (Kroshus & Davoren, 2016). In response to these stressors, athletes may suffer from impaired mental health including anxiety, depression, disordered eating, suicidal ideation, and alcohol or substance dependency (Rice et al., 2016).

For help managing this distress, athletes may turn to coaches for support. Coaches are recognized leaders within sport whose attitudes and expressed opinions towards psychological distress and mental health can greatly influence the likelihood of athletes coming forward and seeking help (Moreland, Coxe, & Yang, 2018). Further, both coaches (Mazzer & Rickwood, 2015) and parents (Brown, Deane, Vella, & Liddle, 2017) alike have expressed that coaches should assume a role in supporting the wellbeing of athletes because of the frequency with which coaches and athletes interact. As such, it is important that coaches be equipped with the knowledge, skills and resources necessary to support the psychological wellbeing of their athletes. This includes coaches being aware of the limitations to their role and knowing to connect athletes with professional resources when instances of psychological distress require such intervention (e.g., suicidal ideation, severe mental illness, and substance dependency).

Examining Coach Support of Student-Athletes

To better understand how coaches currently support psychologically distressed athletes, we conducted a research study exploring intercollegiate student-athletes’ experiences disclosing distress to varsity coaches. Student-athletes are a particularly high-risk group for psychological distress because of the combined pressures of maintaining both athletic and academic excellence (Etzel, Watson, Visek, & Maniar, 2006). Interviews were conducted with 15 student-athletes (2 male, 13 female) and 15 varsity coaches (11 male, 4 female), and asked participants about the challenges surrounding athlete disclosures of distress, and the ways in which coaches were both effective and ineffective at providing support. Using this information, we were able to develop a stronger understanding of the barriers that discourage athletes from disclosure, as well as practical solutions for how coaches can overcome these barriers. Findings also suggest effective immediate, short-, and long-term support practices for coaches who are working with distressed athletes.

Barriers to Disclosing Distress

Five key barriers were identified by our research participants that discouraged student-athletes from disclosing psychological distress to their coaches.

1. Traditionally “Tough” Sport Cultures:

The first barrier centered on the emphasis traditional sport cultures place on the demonstration of mental toughness. Because of this emphasis, psychological distress and associated mental health challenges are often stigmatized within sport and perceived by athletes to be a sign of weakness. Consequently, athletes fear disclosure because they do not want coaches to label them as weak. One athlete explained:

It’s just the way that sport is kind of constructed. You have to have that toughness and not being tough just kind of makes you a lesser athlete.

2. Power of Coaches:

A second barrier was the power coaches hold in their relationship with athletes. Coaches determine starting line-ups, who participates on relays, and ultimately which athletes will compete. Athletes fear disclosure because they worry coaches will perceive their performance abilities as being impaired by their psychological distress and subsequently lose playing time. A coach described this barrier when they said:

I think student-athletes look at the distress they go through and wonder, will coaches look at it as a weakness and is it going to affect my position on the team? Do I really want to take this to the coach and then maybe I won’t be starting tomorrow.

3. An Athlete’s Position on the Team:

Similarly, power differentials amongst teammates and the resulting hierarchies that develop can also act as a barrier to disclosure. Some athletes possess greater athletic skill and are often rewarded for their talent by being named team captains or starters. These athletes are perceived to be at the top of team hierarchies and may face challenges disclosing distress because they fear disclosure will tarnish their reputation as team leaders. Alternatively, athletes on the lower end of their team’s hierarchies, such as bench players and younger athletes, often fear disclosure because they do not perceive themselves as valued members of the team and do not want to draw a coach’s attention away from higher ranking players. An athlete who perceived themselves to be on the lower end of their team’s hierarchy described how this impacted their ability to disclose their sexuality:

I didn’t disclose my sexuality sooner because I wasn’t starting and I wasn’t sure what the response would be based on the way the guys behaved. I didn’t want to be the guy that disrupts the culture and gets kicked off the team.

4. Previous Negative Experiences with Disclosure:

The fourth barrier faced by athletes related to previous negative experiences with disclosure. Athletes are sensitive and highly attuned to the responses of their coaches when disclosing any personal challenges ranging from mild injuries to more serious distress. If athletes perceive a negative coach response during these instances of disclosure, it subsequently discourages them from future help-seeking and reinforces a mindset that sport is not a welcoming environment for distress. This barrier was best described when a coach said:

One challenge is the student-athlete’s past history where they haven’t had a good experience when telling somebody. Maybe there wasn’t support or an understanding or a willingness to help. I’ve seen that a decent amount of times. The athlete waited longer to involve the coach because they’re worried about what the coach’s reaction would be.

5. Poor Visibility of Psychological Distress:

Until recently, the topics of psychological distress and mental health have not been widely discussed in sport. This contributed to the barrier of poor visibility of distress in sport and resulted in many athletes struggling to recognize their own symptoms. Further, once athletes successfully recognized they were experiencing distress, they had few positive role models encouraging them to seek help. Consequently, most of the athletes resorted to hiding their distress from their coaches. For example, one athlete explained how the poor visibility of distress in sport discouraged them from seeking help:

There was fear in seeking support because no one talks about athletes seeking support. I also only knew one friend at the time who was in therapy, and she was not having a good experience.

Overcoming Barriers through Culture Setting

Fortunately, our study identified that coaches have the ability to overcome these barriers by fostering team cultures that support the psychological wellbeing of athletes and encourage help-seeking behaviours. Coaches in our study discussed techniques specific to each barrier, in addition to some more general culture setting practices.

1. Holistic Coaching Philosophy:

To address the emphasis placed by traditional sport cultures on athlete toughness, coaches adopted more holistic coaching philosophies that minimized the importance of performance and winning. This was achieved through a demonstrated focus on athlete wellness through the prioritization of such elements as recovery, nutrition, and sleep. Further, coaches encouraged athletes to strive for balanced lifestyles since they found this helped improve athletes’ general subjective wellbeing, which in turn often enhanced performance abilities.

2. Invest in Coach-Athlete Relationships:

Minimizing power differentials between athletes and coaches involved developing open and honest coach-athlete relationships. Integral to the development of such relationships was coaches verbally communicating to athletes that in some instances, help-seeking may require the athlete to temporarily step away from sport. Coaches stressed, however, that upon return, the athlete would be afforded an opportunity to earn their position again. In addition, coaches discussed the benefit of scheduling regular meetings with their athletes to help build stronger relationships. One coach explained:

To make sure we get to know the athletes, we have a lot of one-on-one meetings. In these meetings, we don’t just talk about what their athletic goals are, we talk about what other life goals they have moving forward. Whether those goals are related to school or their personal lives.

3. Addressing Team Hierarchies:

Coaches were successful at reducing the negative impacts that team hierarchies can have on athlete disclosures of distress by employing the following techniques:

4. Observational Learning:

Overcoming athletes’ previous negative experiences with disclosure was a slow process that was best achieved through observational learning. This meant that coaches made conscious efforts to respond positively when addressing any concerns brought to them by their athletes. Over time, athletes who had previous negative experiences with disclosure observed these positive coach-athlete interactions and learned that it is acceptable to bring distress to the coach. A coach explained an instance of this method:

The athlete felt comfortable disclosing their distress to me because there were other student-athletes who had experienced some distressing issues and we had done all we could to help them. So, I think it was through the observations that the athlete perceived there was a genuine caring about them as a human being and they chose to come forward.

5. Enhancing Visibility of Psychological Distress:

Greater visibility surrounding psychological distress in sport was achieved by coaches speaking openly with their athletes about mental health, whether through anecdotal stories or their own personal experiences. Further, coaches taught their athletes the importance of awareness and accountability. This meant that coaches worked to develop athletes’ abilities to self-reflect on their emotional states and held them accountable for taking action and addressing any sentiments that may be negatively impacting their wellbeing.

6. General Culture Setting:

While not specific to at any one barrier, coaches also used general techniques to help develop positive team cultures surrounding psychological distress and help-seeking. Such techniques included coaches engaging in positive role modeling by tending to their own psychological wellbeing and sharing with athletes how they do so. Further, coaches remained cognizant of their words and avoided using discriminatory language that could contribute to stigma surrounding distress and mental health (to enhance mental health literacy, consider enrolling in Mental Health First Aid; for language training related to diversity and inclusion in sport, please refer to the You Can Play Project) Last, if possible, coaches tried to build diverse coaching and support staff. This was done because not every athlete will connect with their coach on an intimate level where they feel comfortable disclosing distress. However, if athletes have access to a diverse coaching and support staff (i.e., diversity in race, gender, age, sexuality, etc.), it helps increase the odds that athletes will connect with at least one individual.

Supporting Distressed Athletes

While fostering an appropriate team culture is a critical step in coaches supporting the psychological wellbeing of athletes, coaches must also be aware of how to respond safely and effectively when athletes disclose distress. Paramount is creating a safe environment, which includes a respect for current safe sport practices, such as the Rule of Two. Initiating a disclosure conversation can be difficult for athletes, which is why coaches should not fear initiating this conversation themselves. In fact, several athletes in our study reported that they appreciated coach-initiated conversations because they felt it provided an opportunity to confide in the coach and demonstrated that the coach cared. As such, coaches should address/inquire about any unusual athlete behaviours such as uncharacteristic slumps in athletic performance or poor general demeanor at practice and competition. Coaches in the present study explained that they knew their athletes well enough to know when an athlete’s behaviour warranted checking in (i.e., a negative mood at one practice was often not abnormal and did not raise concerns of underlying psychological distress). However, the coaches also acknowledged that when working with first-year and transfer student-athletes, it was always best to follow up if they perceived the athlete’s behaviours to be “off” because they were less accustomed to these athletes’ standard behavioural patterns.

During the initial disclosure of distress, coaches should engage in the following six steps to provide effective immediate support and optimize the disclosure experience for the athlete:

  1. Listen to the athlete explain the situation. This can include paraphrasing what the athlete has said to demonstrate that you are being attentive.
  2. Reassure the athlete that psychological distress affects everybody and help normalize the experience for them.
  3. Ask questions to ensure you understand the situation in its entirety.
  4. Triage the severity of the situation to determine if the issue can be managed in-house or requires professional support. Professional support should be sought in any instance when the coach does not feel adequately equipped to manage the situation, and when the athlete is an immediate risk to themselves and/or others (e.g., suicidal ideation, severe mental illness, substance dependency, etc.).
  5. Connect the athlete to the appropriate support resources (e.g., student-athletes may be connected with licensed mental health professionals who are affiliated with the institution or the Athletics Department).

Following the coach’s initial response, optimal short-term support builds on the fifth step of connecting the athlete to resources. When athletes are in distress, it can be challenging for them to take the first step in seeking help. As such, coaches should offer to make the connection on behalf of the athlete and physically take them to the support resource. Coaches should ultimately respect the athlete’s decision in having the coach accompany them or not; however, coaches in the present study expressed that most athletes appreciated being accompanied by somebody because it provided a much-needed level of reassurance and encouragement.

Once athletes have accessed the appropriate resources, coaches should engage in the following long-term support practices:

Concluding Remarks

Traditional perceptions around psychological distress and mental health in sport are often stigmatizing and discourage athletes from seeking help. Coaches, however, can play a significant role in changing these perceptions and creating sport environments that support the psychological wellbeing of their athletes. To do so, coaches can adopt and implement the techniques and suggested support practices outlined above. Since these suggestions are based on research in an intercollegiate sport setting, coaches involved at different levels of sport may need to modify these materials to fit the specific needs of their teams.

Recommended Resources

Carol LaFayette-Boyd is one of Canada’s rising athletics stars. Notably, LaFayette-Boyd is “rising” to exceptional athletic status at the age of 77 years. Setting a new world age-group record in the W75 200-meter race at the 2019 Canadian Masters Indoor Championships in Edmonton, the Saskatchewan native added to her plethora of age-matched world records and international gold medals, and her title of World Masters Athletics’ 2018 Female Athlete of the Year. LaFayette-Boyd began competing in Masters track and field at age 50, returning to competition after having participated in track and field and basketball in high school. She attributes her athletic success to eating a balanced diet, sleeping well, and stretching, and says that she feels healthier at age 75 than she did at 35. Finally, consider this – the earliest officially recognized world record for the women’s 100-meter race occurred in 1922: 13.6 seconds by Czechoslovakia’s (now Czech Republic and Slovakia) Marie Mejzlíková II at 19 years of age. Carol LaFayette-Boyd’s personal best 100-meter race time is 13.75s at age 60! While LaFayette-Boyd’s feats are spectacular on their own, she is part of a growing number of Masters athletes forcing us to consider new frontiers in human performance.

Masters sport has been regarded as an ideal facilitator of healthy aging, and this article focuses on relevant discussions for Masters athletes 60 years of age and beyond. In particular, we will highlight our research program that has focused on illuminating the voices and stories of Masters athletes themselves. What are the individual and societal outcomes of Masters sport? What are the considerations along with the positive and negative implications of promoting active aging through sport?

What is Masters Sport?

Masters athletes train for and compete in organized sport at regional, national, and international events. Masters sport provides a competition opportunity for those outside of the ages considered conducive to peak performance for a given sport. The minimum eligible age to compete is typically 25-35 years, and participants are usually classified into 5-10 year age bands with no maximum age limit. Notably, the World Masters Games (WMG) is the largest multi-sport event in the world (in terms of competitor numbers), hosting up to 30,000 athletes each quadrennial. To provide context, 11,000 athletes participated in the most recent Summer Olympic Games in Rio, Brazil. The inaugural WMG in Toronto in 1985 hosted 5,000 athletes and the event has since experienced explosive growth. A broad range of 30 different team and individual sports are normally offered at the WMG, including weightlifting, athletics, tennis, basketball, swimming, field hockey, and rugby. The Winter World Masters Games typically includes events such as ice hockey, curling, and cross-country skiing. 

Perceived Benefits of Masters sport

Although there is no consensus definition for healthy aging, it is often agreed that Masters athletes are aging well from a physical functioning standpoint. For example, studies have shown that older athletes have better physical characteristics (e.g., muscle mass, strength, maximum oxygen uptake) than less-active, age-matched peers (Geard et al., 2017). However, healthy aging means more than simply being physically healthy. Much less is known about the psychological and social benefits of Masters sport.

To begin to address this gap, our team conducted in-depth interviews with 135 athletes (60 years of age and older) at the 2009 (Sydney, Australia), 2013 (Turin, Italy), and 2017 (Auckland, New Zealand) World Masters Games. Participants represented numerous sports across multiple countries including Australia, Canada, England, Germany, New Zealand, and the United States. We asked athletes questions about their sport experiences and thoughts on lifestyle and aging. Athletes overwhelmingly confirmed that they derive a range of benefits from participation in Masters sport. These benefits are exemplified in the following quotes from one of our recent publications (Horton et al., 2018) focused on female Masters athletes. Pseudonyms have been used to protect participant identities.

Social Benefits

Nearly all women emphasized the social benefits accrued through participation in competitive sport and Masters games. Lisa (aged 72, swimming) commented:

“Masters (events) have given me an opportunity to meet women who will be my friends all my life.”

Psychological Benefits

Similarly, the athletes outlined psychological outcomes gained from sport that positively impacted mental health, mindset, a sense of identity and self-concept. Doris (aged 70, track and field) said:

“Stress relief is one but it’s more than that…your perception changes…You see yourself, not just as the mother, the wife, the teacher, but as an athlete.”

Physical Benefits

The women also validated findings on the physical benefits of sport. Betty (aged 70, weightlifting) shared:

“It gave me back my life, it really did. Because as the muscles became stronger, those weak joints were supported, pain lessened… you’ve got the stability there with the muscle.”

Ultimately, Masters sport is perceived by participants as an extremely rewarding endeavour. We speculate that this is due partly to competitive sport for older adults providing distinct benefits beyond traditional forms of exercise and physical activity. Our recent findings on older male athletes (Horton et al., 2019) highlight the unique role that “competition” serves in Masters sport, as exemplified in the quotes below.

Something About Competitive Sport

Neil (aged 74, weightlifting) commented on the motivational role of competition:

“Really, the competition gives me more of an incentive to work out, you have an incentive to keep your body in shape but I don’t think I would do it to the level that I do without competition.”

Nathan (75, swimming) compared competitive sport to a drug:

“Sports give you the really head-on adrenaline that you can’t get from other drugs.”

Our participants also spoke about the importance of winning and keeping score as key ingredients in what makes competitive sport special. Finally, and in a broader sense, Masters sport appears to give older adults an opportunity to cope with, adjust to, and negotiate aging; at the same time, it can lead to an avoidance or denial of physiological aging. Findings from Dionigi et al. (2013), below, demonstrate how Masters athletes simultaneously resist, redefine, and accept the aging process.

Negotiating Aging

For some older athletes, competitive sport is empowering because it allows for the perception that aging is being avoided. Lucy (aged 69, badminton) commented:

“You’re never too old to play, never too old. There’s no such thing as old . . . as long as you participate in it and enjoy it, then that’s the beauty of it…”

However, avoidance of aging can become problematic for individuals if it leads to a denial of the physiological realities of the aging process or a cultural expectation that everyone can or ‘should’ play sport as they age (see Dionigi et al., 2013).

For others, Masters sport provided a space to find new meanings later in life and make the most of current circumstances. Marlene (aged 66, swimmer) shared:

“…as a younger person I was never successful. I was never really good at something and when I discovered that at this age group I could win things and get recognition from it, it just really spurred me on … I never, ever considered myself to be a competitive person … but once I had got something it really kicked something awake in me and now I’m out there to win.”

Aging is a process of change. At the individual level, it appears that sport may help older adults perceive certain changes as positive (e.g., retirement as an opportunity for more leisure, travel, and friendships through sport). Sport is a unique leisure experience and can undoubtedly benefit many older adults. Those promoting sport for older adults may wish to highlight the wide range of positive outcomes that older athletes tell us they are experiencing, but also recognize the barriers to participation, as detailed below.

Implications and Complications of Promoting Masters Sport

Our participants were clearly advocates for Masters sport, and many saw themselves as having the potential to serve as “role models” for less active older adults. Consistently, the Canadian government is using sport as a tool to encourage  increased participation in physical activity given that only 12% of older Canadian adults report meeting recommended physical activity levels (Statistics Canada, 2015). However, the research findings relating to Masters athletes as role models are unclear. For example, Horton et al. (2013) provided evidence that older adults who already participate in at least moderate levels of physical activity may be motivated by Masters athlete role models to increase their involvement. However, the authors also caution that elite Masters athletes can be perceived by inactive older adults as intimidating and might even discourage health-related behaviour change. Despite this nuance, many Masters athletes in our recent works (Horton et al., 2018; Horton et al., 2019) expressed that they could inspire other older adults to become more active, yet more research in this area is needed.

Role Modeling

Some participants spoke about their social roles as perceived by others. Lucinda (83, swimming) stated:

“The mayor of my town always calls me the example for other elder people. ‘Look at her!’ You know geraniums? There’s a saying in Holland: Don’t sit back with the geraniums – get out.”

Furthermore, several participants discussed their own beliefs with respect to their roles. Nathan (75, swimming) told us:

“I have tried to convince people that I swim with who don’t compete that they should try competing.”

In addition to their potential status as role models, Masters athletes often spoke about being physically active as simply the “right” thing to do. While this may seem benign on the surface, there may be some complexity worth considering. Masters sport is primarily a positive experience for participants, but there is likely potential to improve the experience for everyone. For example, Masters sport may be associated with an increased risk of injury for older adults compared to other forms of physical activity (McKean et al., 2006). Moreover, those who have an “obsessive passion” with their sport may feel controlled by their activity and experience poor psychological and social functioning as a result (Young et al., 2015). Finally, our interviews revealed a moralizing component (i.e. an overly critical point of view on issues of right and wrong) to Masters sport. Many athletes were keen on conveying a moral obligation to stay fit and healthy through exercise and sport. They were eager to spread their message about the individual and societal benefits of sport and exercise, as well as the consequences of sedentary behaviour. Non-participation in physical activity was, at times, seen as irrational, and with this came a subtle and somewhat critical view of those who are sedentary (see also Gard et al., 2017). Some of the athletes we spoke to could be considered exercise evangelists whose well-intended encouragement risked marginalizing peers who are less active (Horton et al., 2018). 

Evangelical About Exercise

Some participants put the responsibility of disease squarely on the individual. Justin (aged 90, swimming) said:

“I mean how could you, when you’re given this beautiful thing called a body in which we live, how could you not look after it and exercise it? This body is the most complicated piece of biological machinery in existence, and it should be cared for. If you don’t, then you don’t deserve to have health. It doesn’t take much to keep it healthy.”

Many athletes expressed concern with the burden of sedentary behaviour on the healthcare system. Betty (aged 70, weightlifting) noted:

“People will start getting more and more obese, the health system will fail, but the trouble is there is still a lot who just don’t want to listen, who still smoke, and they are the ones who will drain the system when you get to pension age.”

We believe that these sentiments may, in part, reflect widespread beliefs in Western society about doing one’s share to stay healthy through high levels of exercise, so as to not burden the healthcare system with “lifestyle disease”. While we recognize the potential merits of encouraging increased levels of physical activity participation among older adults, we should be careful about framing certain lifestyles and forms of physical activity as superior to others, especially given the many socio-cultural, political, and individual circumstances which affect human health and behaviour.

Winter World Masters Games 2020

Masters sport is an excellent opportunity for travel, challenging oneself, negotiating the aging experience, and establishing ongoing friendships. There is clearly a wide range of benefits that Masters athletes receive from their participation in sport events, which may extend beyond what traditional exercise can provide. As we have outlined, this may be partly due to the unique social and competitive nature of Masters sport. However, there are substantial barriers associated with participation in Masters sport, including high costs of travel, registration fees, and equipment. Moreover, the older adult population is diverse and participation in competitive sport will simply not be possible (or of interest) for all seniors due to varying circumstances. The Ontario 55+ Games, for example, addresses some of these issues by including a broad range of physical and cognitive activities (e.g., bridge, euchre, Nordic skiing, pickle ball, and ten pin bowling), which may cater more favourably to the diverse senior population. In addition, the Games are government funded which minimizes registration costs, and include qualifying events across many local Ontario districts, reducing travel expenses for those who do not wish to participate at the provincial level (assuming that provincial-level games typically require more extensive travel).

Conclusions

Masters athletes like Carol-LaFayette-Boyd are growing in number and pushing new frontiers in human performance, prompting the need for more research and application pertaining to athlete development later in life. For those who have the resources and desire to compete, our participants’ stories suggest that Masters sport may be an extremely rewarding endeavor in later life, offering a range of physical, social and psychological benefits. In this spirit, we encourage communities and active aging initiatives to embrace Masters sport as a leisure option with the goal of engaging those who might benefit. However, it is worth considering matching these messages with the promotion of other forms of later-life leisure. Additionally, making Masters sport more accessible is important so disadvantaged and hard-to-reach groups can participate if they wish to do so. While easier said than done, these are potential next steps in making sport (and leisure) more available to older adults.

Upcoming Masters Games

2020 Ontario 55+ Summer Games, Peterborough

2020 World Masters Athletics Championships, Toronto

2021 World Masters Games, Kansai, Japan